Goal Of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions Research Articles

Long-term dynamics of aboveground carbon stocks in managed loblolly pine plantations in the southeast United States

Intensively managed pine plantations in the southeastern US could not only meet the increasing demand for traditional wood products and biomass for energy, but also play a critical role in meeting US greenhouse gas emission reduction goals through additional carbon (C) sequestration. Adapting forest management to help mitigate climate change requires better understanding of long-term effects of silvicultural treatments on forest production and C sequestration. With two long-term culture-by-density research experiments for loblolly pine plantations across the southern US, we assessed the impacts of site quality, cultural intensity (operational and intensive), and planting density (741, 1483, 2224, 2965, 3706 and 4448 trees ha−1) on dynamics of aboveground net primary production in C (ANPPC), aboveground live tree C stocks (AGC), and cumulative C lost to tree mortality and other litter production (CLC), and total gross C capture (TGC). Cultural intensity significantly affected ANPPC and AGC before age 15 years, and CLC and TGC during the whole study period; while planting density significantly affected ANPPC before age 15 years, CLC after age 6 years, and AGC and TGC over time. Site quality significantly affected AGC at early and late ages, CLC at mid-rotation, and TGC at early ages. After age 20 years, higher quality sites still resulted in higher AGC than lower quality sites, while higher-planting densities might no longer promote aboveground live tree C stock. Intensive management practices that promote growth along with C accumulation in young stands do not necessarily result in higher C stocks in older stands. There exist a maximum C sequestration rate and a maximum C storage in loblolly pine plantations. Continuing carbon capture in the extended rotation or deferred harvest forests is in no way guaranteed to continuously increase carbon stocks. To develop effective climate-smart forest management recommendations, long-term dynamics of carbon capture, release, and storage, especially in managed forest plantations, need more research.

Operations of data centers with onsite renewables considering greenhouse gas emissions

In a highly technology-dependent society, processing large amounts of data has become essential, resulting in a growing number of data centers. The global data center industry accounts for a significant proportion of the world’s energy consumption. A partial or total transition of the energy sources that power the operation of data centers to cleaner energy, particularly onsite renewable technologies, will help to achieve the greenhouse gas emission reduction goals established in international agreements. However, integrating such technologies is difficult due to the intermittency and availability of renewable sources. Nevertheless, temporal and geographical flexibility for processing part of the data centers’ workload provides an opportunity to efficiently integrate these renewable energy sources. In this paper, we develop an operational scheme for a network of interconnected data centers with a significant electricity supply from onsite technologies consisting of (i) an optimal job migration and scheduling policy for data centers to match their operation and the availability of renewable energy under an emissions cap-and-trade program; (ii) an energy management system to control the data centers’ onsite renewable and grid energy resources; and (iii) a robust optimization approach to account for the intermittency of the renewables and to identify the optimal migration and scheduling policies under the worst-case scenario. A case study is carried out to assess the economic and environmental impacts. The results indicate that the installation of onsite technologies and an optimal migration policy reduce the operational costs and the greenhouse gas emissions of the networks of data centers.

Exploring low-carbon pilot city policy implementation: evidence from China

ABSTRACT China has established three rounds of low-carbon pilot city initiatives. However, a gap exists between policy making and successful implementation, and the effects on greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction were found to be different among pilots. This paper considers the question of how low-carbon policies in cities can be implemented effectively and how policy combinations are adopted for GHG emissions reduction. It uses a mixed research approach, including Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) and field investigation in Pilot Y (situated in the southwest China). The results show that, first, financial support and monitoring systems are necessary conditions, while political leadership is a sufficient condition. This means that the absence of financial support or monitoring systems could lead to increased GHG emissions, while the presence of political leadership always promotes the reduction of GHG emissions but may not be sufficient on its own to achieve them. Second, the target responsibility system (TRS) – a system used by higher government levels to assess the policy implementation of lower government levels – and human resource mechanisms cannot effectively lead to the promotion of GHG emissions reduction. Finally, in the absence of TRS and human resource mechanisms, environmental information disclosure (EID) was found to effectively promote low-carbon urban development by encouraging public participation. This paper reveals the complexity of the implementation of low-carbon policies in cities, identifies the link between city-level and national action, and enriches the theoretical explanation of governance and low-carbon policy implementation gaps in China. Key policy insights China’s low-carbon pilot city project is critical for reducing GHG emissions, however, the effects of the low-carbon pilot city programmes varied greatly. Financial support and monitoring systems are necessary conditions, while political leadership is a sufficient condition to achieve cities’ GHG emissions reduction goals. Local low-carbon development is limited and not put into practice at the city level in China, in part because of the absence of financial support and limited political attention. This study highlights the key conditions of organizational behaviour at the meso-level, and enriches the theoretical explanation of environmental policy implementation gaps in China.

The role of natural gas in facilitating the transition to renewable electricity generation in South Africa

As is being done in most of the world, South Africa has commenced the transition from a fossil fuel-based electricity generation system to one based on renewable sources to meet greenhouse gas emission reduction goals. This paper explores the role of natural gas in South Africa to support the transition to a renewable energy-driven power grid. Specifically, the paper quantifies the firm and dispatchable power requirement to accommodate variability in solar and wind generation sources based on real-time series data from current renewable energy power plants for the country, and demonstrates that natural gas could be one of the elements to meet the medium-term need for this dispatchable power requirement, based on current regional gas resources. A range of alternative natural gas sources are considered in this analysis, covering existing gas resources from Mozambique, deep-water offshore potential from the southern Cape, shale gas from the Karoo basin, as well as liquefied natural gas imports. In addition, the alternatives to natural gas to supply the required dispatchable energy are considered. The analysis shows that the major challenge is to have sufficient gas storage available to be able to provide gas at the very high instantaneous rates required, but where the gas is only used for short periods of time and at low annual rates.

The Economics of the Site C Hydroelectric Project in British Columbia

The Site C hydroelectric project is an 1100-Megawatt hydroelectric facility under development on the Peace River in British Columbia. Construction costs for the project are currently estimated to be $10.7 billion. The project has been criticized for its high cost and the impacts it will have on the river system, including the flooding of land to establish the reservoir. Project proponents argue that Site C will provide low-carbon electricity that will help BC and Canada reach their greenhouse gas emission reduction goals. In this paper, we assess the cost-effectiveness of the Site C project using a detailed linear programming capacity expansion and dispatch model of the British Columbia and Alberta electricity systems. Our model includes hourly electricity demand data for sixteen sub-regions within BC and Alberta, hourly wind resource data for 681 grid cells in the two provinces, hourly solar irradiation data from 112 weather stations to characterize the solar resource, and a detailed hydroelectric model that accounts for the chaining of hydroelectric facilities and reservoirs within the Peace River, Columbia River, Kootenay River and Bridge River watersheds. We assess the value of the Site C project by calculating the optimal electricity system for supplying BC and Alberta electricity demand in 2030 both with and without the presence of the Site C project. Our model simulations reveal that under current electricity sector policies, the Site C project is uneconomic. We find that the value created by Site C only exceeds its costs in scenarios where BC and Alberta coordinate electricity markets, build additional transmission capacity, and work to reduce greenhouse gas emissions significantly below baseline levels.

Biowaste to hydrogen or Fischer-Tropsch fuels by gasification – A Gibbs energy minimisation study for finding carbon capture potential and fossil carbon displacement on the road

To reach its greenhouse gas emission reduction goals, Norway needs a shift away from the use of fossil fuels in the transport sector. The production potential and efficiency of Fischer-Tropsch biofuels and hydrogen from gasified wet organic municipal solid waste has been investigated. The carbon capture potential was estimated for both production processes and the number of road vehicles compared, which can be supplied with the fuel. Gibbs free energy minimisation is used to predict the synthesis gas composition. A detailed analysis of the different gas treatment processes that lead to either gasoline and diesel production, along with energy recovery as electricity, or hydrogen in either compressed or liquefied form is conducted. Both processes can utilise all available waste heat and the Fischer-Tropsch biofuel process is even self-sufficient with electrical power. The production of hydrogen has both higher first and second law efficiencies and a greater number of vehicles can be supplied with fuel. Either 2367 tonne H2 or 1497 tonne gasoline, 1279 tonne diesel, and 1.33 MW of net electric power can be produced at 1073 K gasification temperature, where both yield and efficiencies are highest. Hydrogen production also has the larger carbon capture potential during fuel production.

California Carbon Offsets and Working Forest Conservation Easements

California’s cap-and-trade system is a vital laboratory for testing the effectiveness of this market-driven approach in meeting greenhouse gas emission reduction goals and the use of forestry-based carbon offsets within these systems generally. Based on this experience, this Article explores one of the primary challenges, layering offsets with working forest conservation easements, which currently limits opportunities to effectively use these tools in concert. Ultimately, this market may need to foster and rely on natural linkages with working forest conservation easements to develop these offsets and to better ensure that the critical societal objectives of these projects are being met.

An assessment of the load modifying potential of model predictive controlled dynamic facades within the California context

California is making major strides towards meeting its greenhouse gas emission reduction goals with the transformation of its electrical grid to accommodate renewable generation, aggressive promotion of building energy efficiency, and increased emphasis on moving toward electrification of end uses (e.g., residential heating, etc.). As a result of this activity, the State is faced with significant challenges of systemwide resource adequacy, power quality and grid reliability that could be addressed in part with demand responsive (DR) load modifying strategies using controllable building technologies. Dynamic facades have the ability to potentially shift and shed loads at critical times of the day in combination with daylighting and HVAC controls. This study explores the technical potential of dynamic facades to support net load shape objectives. A model predictive controller (MPC) was designed based on reduced order thermal (Modelica) and window (Radiance) models. Using an automated workflow (involving JModelica.org and MPCPy), these models were converted and differentiated to formulate a non-linear optimization problem. A gradient-based, non-linear programming problem solver (IPOPT) was used to derive an optimal control strategy, then a post-optimization step was used to convert the solution to a discrete state for facade actuation. Continuous state modulation of the façade was also modeled. The performance of the MPC controller with and without activation of thermal mass was evaluated in a south-facing perimeter office zone with a three-zone electrochromic window for a clear sunny week during summer and winter periods in Oakland and Burbank, California. MPC strategies reduced total energy cost by 9–28% and critical coincident peak demand was reduced by up to 0.58 W/ft2-floor or 19–43% in the 4.6 m (15 ft) deep south zone on sunny summer days in Oakland compared to state-of-the-art heuristic control. Similar savings were achieved for the hotter, Burbank climate in Southern California. This outcome supports the argument that MPC control of dynamic facades can provide significant electricity cost reductions and net load management capabilities of benefit to both the building owner and evolving electrical grid.

Consolidated Climate Markets Mechanism Analysis—Case Studies of China, Japan, and Taiwan

The post-Kyoto Protocol era has seen a transition to focus on the development of a renewable energy (RE) market as a primary instrument to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worldwide. This paper analyses the development of GHG reduction and RE market in China, Japan, and Taiwan that are geographically proximate but socioeconomically diverse, and each plays a different but significant role in the world’s economy. By deploying a consolidated model incorporating the key components of market drivers underlying the goal of achieving GHG reduction, we threaded through the policy- and market-instruments implemented for each of the case studies over the past 20 years using the model. One commonality is that subsidiary schemes in the form of feed-in tariffs have served as an effective policy tool to boost the growth of renewable energy installations, though the worsening financial burden renders this path unsustainable. Over-reliance on feed-in-tariff schemes may have also impeded the liberation of an energy market pivotal to the success of elevating RE portfolio through trading mechanisms. What followed were the implementations of renewable energy certificate (REC) systems that have experienced various roadblocks leading to failures of the certificate market. By understanding the paths engaged in each of the cases, a conceptualized strategy depicted by the consolidated model is proposed to show the links between a renewable market and a carbon market. The framework would expedite the trading of RECs and carbon credits to accelerate the attainment of GHG emission reduction goals.

Measuring Success: Improving Assessments of Aggregate Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction Goals

AbstractLong‐term success of the Paris Agreement will depend on the effectiveness of the instruments that it sets in place. Key among these are the nationally determined contributions (NDCs), which elaborate country‐specific goals for mitigating and adapting to climate change. One role of the academic community and civil society in supporting the Paris Agreement is to assess the consistency between the near‐term action under NDCs and the agreement's long‐term goals, thereby providing insight into the chances of long‐term success. Here we assess the strengths and weaknesses of current methods to estimate the effectiveness of the mitigation component of NDCs and identify the scientific and political advances that could be made to improve confidence in evaluating NDCs against the long‐term goals. Specifically, we highlight (1) the influence of post‐2030 assumptions on estimated 21st century warming, (2) uncertainties arising from the lack of published integrated assessment modeling scenarios with long‐term, moderate effort reflecting a continuation of the current political situation, and (3) challenges in using a carbon budget approach. We further identify aspects that can be improved in the coming years: clearer communication regarding the meaning, likelihood, and timeframe of NDC consistent warming estimates; additional modeling of long‐term, moderate action scenarios; and the identification of metrics for assessing progress that are not based solely on emissions, such as infrastructure investment, energy demand, or installed power capacity.

Achieving the 2°C goal: the potential of India’s building sector

ABSTRACT India’s growth of energy demand in the building stock, and efforts to curb it, are placed into an international context by adapting the reporting criteria developed for the Global Alliance on Building & Construction's (GABC) Global Status Report (2017) on buildings and construction. A survey of state and non-state actor climate commitments submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’s (UNFCCC) Non State Actors Zone for Climate Action (NAZCA) database and recent research on the status of building energy codes and standards globally are also presented. To contribute to a 2°C pathway, India must achieve a 50% reduction in building energy demand and related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2050. India is taking steps toward this goal through initiatives such as recent upgrades to the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC), encouraging green building rating and energy certification, and stimulating markets for low-carbon/high-efficiency technologies. However, despite improvements in building energy intensity, neither the global or the Indian building sectors are currently decarbonizing. The adoption of consistent national energy and GHG emission reduction goals could further align national, subnational and private-sector climate action commitments to facilitate a transition to a low-carbon emissions pathway and contribute to limiting global warming to well below 2°C.

Impacts of booming concrete production on water resources worldwide

Concrete is the most-used construction material worldwide. Previous studies on the environmental impacts of concrete production have mainly focused on the materials involved and energy consumption, as well as CO2 emissions; little is known, however, about its water consumption as well as the effective measures to reduce such consumption. We quantify water use of global concrete production in 2012 and project the value to 2050. The results show that concrete production was responsible for 9% of global industrial water withdrawals in 2012 (this is approximately 1.7% of total global water withdrawal). In 2050, 75% of the water demand for concrete production will likely occur in regions that are expected to experience water stress. Among possible ways of mitigating water demand are choosing the appropriate selection of electricity fuel mixes and improved processing of raw materials; however, these strategies may conflict with greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals. This work develops a baseline estimate for water consumption and withdrawal for concrete production and identifies locations for targeted mitigation. Little is known about the water impacts of concrete production. This study quantifies this impact globally for 2012 and projects it to 2050. It also evaluates in which regions the impacts will be more severe, based on the availability of renewable water resources.

Regional optimization of new straw power plants with greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals: A comparison of different logistics modes

Appropriate planning according to regional conditions is crucial to achieve sustainable bioenergy management. Literatures have highlighted the importance of optimization targets, restrictions and logistics design on the performance of bioenergy systems and regional bioenergy planning. This paper optimizes straw power plant layouts (both in terms of location and scale) in Jiangsu Province to minimize the logistics costs while meeting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction goals. Results show that the logistics mode has important effects on the optimal scale and logistics costs but a minimal influence on the site selection, based on the comparison of two typical logistics modes in the study area, namely, the RPM and the SCM. In the RPM, the optimal logistics cost is 14.38 USD/Mg, which is 49.6% greater than that in the SCM. Moreover, the optimal location and production scale at each site are very sensitive to changes in GHG emissions reduction goals. Changes in GHG emissions reduction goals can significantly affect the logistics costs and straw supply, which may increase the operation risk of straw power generation plants. We suggest that the logistics mode and the GHG emissions reduction goals should be carefully designed when constructing new bioenergy plants, and technological innovation with respect to harvest and compression machinery before transportation should be promoted to improve economic performance and reduce GHG emissions throughout the entire system without changing the locations of existing plants.

Evaluation of the Metropolitan Transportation Commission’s Climate Initiatives Program

The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC), the metropolitan planning organization for the San Francisco Bay Area, California, launched the Climate Initiatives Program in 2010 as part of the region’s commitment to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from transportation sources. Most of the Climate Initiatives Program funding was allocated to local governments or used by MTC for innovative pilot projects to test the ability to reduce GHG emissions. The results of a comprehensive evaluation of the program are reported. The evaluation covers 16 projects that received a total of $33 million in funding in five project categories: transportation demand management (TDM), safe routes to school, bicycle projects, electric vehicle projects, and other project types. This evaluation differs from many previous studies in that it is based on observed transportation activity before and after each project, with data collected through user surveys and other methods. The evaluation found that projects varied widely in their ability to reduce GHG emissions and in their cost-effectiveness. The largest emission reductions came from a multifaceted TDM program in San Mateo County. The most cost-effective project applied cold in-place recycling to pavement resurfacing in the city of Napa. The evaluation provides valuable information as MTC and its partners seek to fund activities that can help achieve the region’s GHG emission reduction goals.

A Comparison of Fuel Cell and Energy Storage Technologies' Potential to Reduce CO2 Emissions and Meet Renewable Generation Goals

California’s Climate Change Scoping Plan identifies fuel cell and energy storage technologies as potential strategies to support greenhouse gas emission reduction goals. It is important to understand the potential effectiveness of these technologies in meeting the State goals. To this end, scenarios were examined using the HiGRID model, comparing the deployment of 5 GW of fuel cells to pumped hydro, compressed air, and flow battery storage. Cases were run for the California electricity grid at 33% and 50% renewable energy, and each scenario was evaluated based on carbon reduction potential and cost per ton carbon dioxide equivalent reduced. Fuel cell scenarios showed greater emissions reductions compared to energy storage for all cases and lower cost per ton CO2 reduced for all cases, except for pumped hydro at 50% renewables. As renewable levels increase, so does the reliance on new peaker capacity, slightly undermining emission reduction gains from fuel cell deployment. Dynamic, energy storage technologies, on the other hand, minimize new peaker capacity at high renewable levels, alluding to a greater opportunity for utilizing energy storage in the long term. While the most cost-effective energy storage technology is pumped hydro, the feasibility of large-scale deployment of pumped hydro is unclear due to the current California drought and the on-going threat of climate change. Of the technologies studied, high-efficiency baseload fuel cells show the greatest potential to support CO2 reduction goals in the near term, with the grid benefiting from more dynamic dispatch at higher renewable levels.

Application of Systems Readiness Level Methods in Advanced Fossil Energy Applications

The Department of Energy's Fossil Energy Program (FE), through the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), has been tasked with developing fossil energy technologies to meet U.S. greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals for over a decade. NETL has adopted Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) for the last five years to estimate progress in technology development under its research portfolio. Advanced fossil energy systems need to be tested at full-scale in an integrated facility before they can be considered ready for commercial deployment. Commercial-scale demonstrations of energy technology present numerous challenges associated with first-of-a-kind facilities, one in particular being the need to integrate multiple emerging technologies that were previously demonstrated in pilot-scale applications into a design that can be constructed and operated under commercial plant operating conditions.Systems Readiness Level (SRL) methodology is an analysis approach developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) as a metric for assessing progress in developing major military systems. SRL methodology builds on Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) widely used in government agencies to assess the maturity of emerging technologies under development. To estimate the level of readiness of a system comprising multiple emerging technologies in their current state, SRL methodology unites the TRL for each technology with Integration Readiness Levels that express the need for each of these technologies to be integrated with other technologies in the system. A matrix algebra approach is then used to estimate an overall level of systems readiness for the intended system.NETL tested SRL methodology in a pilot application with the objective of developing better analysis tools to support major decisions regarding advanced fossil energy technologies. NETL applied SRL methodology to estimate the readiness of two advanced fossil energy technology projects using data that was available at the time they were initiated. This paper describes the successful pilot application, the lessons learned and the potential for SRL methodology to support technology development.

Building Policies for Energy Efficiency and the Development of a Zero-Energy Building Envelopment System in Korea

In this paper, the status of South Korea's policy (i.e., major support measures and energy performance standards) for the achievement of zero-energy buildings was investigated. Development of a high-performance envelopment system and its performance were also analyzed. The South Korean government has been proclaiming and enacting standards and ordinances related to green buildings since 1999. In 2008, it announced more specific and detailed regulations based on the Framework Act on Green Growth, which presents annual greenhouse gas emission reduction goals and mandates the realization of zero-energy buildings by 2025. To meet these legal standards and achieve the country’s energy-saving goals, the high-performance building envelop system was developed. The insulation performance of this system turned out to be equal or higher than the insulation performance standards for passive houses. It is expected that the use of the high-performance envelop system and renewable energy will contribute to realizing the nation's goal of mandatory application of zero-energy apartment houses.

Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Goals at Public Institutions: The Case of a Land-Grant University

Aims: We apply several theories to the problem of greenhouse gas emission and energy consumption reduction goals at large public institutions. We discuss the history of the movement for reduced greenhouse gasemissions at universities and introduce a case university. We test our case universitys energy consumption for evidence of reductions. Methodology: We develop two base OLS model for on-campus energy consumption. We build time series elements into the mode ls to test for statistically significant reductions in monthly energy consumption. Results:We do not find evidence for reduced energy consumption at the case university over the twelve year time period (n=146). Conclusion: Several theoretical problems make reducing energy consumption or greenhouse gas emissions at large public institutions particularly challenging. The case university we analyzed has failed to make meaningful energy consumption reductions despite setting ambitious goals.

United States Biofuel Production as Climate Policy: Tensions between Greenhouse Gas Reduction, Agricultural Economies, And Agro-ecological Practice

This article discusses U.S. biofuel production as a strategy for climate change mitigation, describing how energy independence and greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals may not be met as easily as initially hoped. Alternatively, it positions biofuel production as an environmental fix, a socio-ecological project indicative of the contradictory imperatives to conserve, exploit, and create resources for accumulation. It examines how this fix has developed in rural production areas, focusing on Iowa, in the United States. It also describes how rural residents negotiate a biofuels future that bears significant ecological and economic risks, while it maintains accumulation opportunity for dominant energy and agro-industry actors.

Evolving a Cleaner Grid: Uses of Natural Gas in Transportation

Achieving greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals from the transportation sector will be a monumental challenge. Various alternative vehicle technologies such as plug-in hybrids, battery and fuel cell electric vehicles offer the promise of sharply reducing end use emissions. However, when considering the full fuel cycle, it is clear that a dramatically cleaner electricity grid will also be necessary if we ever hope to meet ambitious long-term reduction goals. To demonstrate the importance of achieving this dramatically cleaner grid, our analysis implements Argonne National Laboratory’s GREET model and the latest Annual Energy Outlook data to evaluate the relative merit of various alternative vehicles on a well-to-wheel basis while taking into account projections for the evolution of the U.S. electricity supply. Fortunately, significant progress is now underway to transform the electricity sector. The emergence of substantial supplies of shale gas, at low cost and substantial abundance, has dramatically reshaped the energy landscape. There are multiple pathways for this abundant supply of natural gas to help reduce the transportation sector emissions footprint, whether through greater utilization in highly efficient natural gas combined-cycle electricity generators, direct use in compressed natural gas vehicles, or steam reformation to provide hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles. Greater reliance on high efficiency natural gas combined cycle generators, combined with the steady expansion of renewable generation and energy efficiency, is providing a critical alternative to continued reliance on dirty, legacy generators. This emerging new clean power paradigm can multiply the benefits of more rapid growth in electric drive vehicles.